In Congo, parrots are flowers

Species name: Impatiens niamniamensis

Common name: parrot plant, congo cockatoo

Location: UWO Greenhouse

The parrot plant, as its other common name may suggest, is native to Central Africa in the very small remains of what used to be a vast tropical rainforest. There haven't been any biodiversity studies recently that examine this species, but due to the rate of deforestation and the spreading drought in the area, I can imagine this species is probably at risk in its native range. Fortunately, this plant is readily propagated in the greenhouse so if rehabilitation studies were ever performed there is a genetic bank from which to select plants to recolonize the area. Due to its seed dispersal mechanism it may become invasive in some areas.

Like in the touch-me-nots (which are in the same genus; you can read all about them HERE), the seed pods of this species are like little seed grenades. When mature, even the lightest touch will cause the seed pods to explode and seeds go flying in all directions. An excellent dispersal mechanism, especially because these plants thrive in tropical climates. Here, the soil very quickly loses its organic nutrients in the top layers of soil and so plants need to disperse great distances from the mother plant in order to be able to successfully root and grow in the soil. Most greenhouses that propagate and sell the parrot plant don't even bother collecting the seeds, since the plant is so easily propagated from cuttings. When you do a cutting of a plant, usually you need to dip the exposed cut into a rooting compound which is full of plant hormones that signal the maturation of root cells from the plant's stem cells (in plants we call these meristematic cells). The plants are then placed in a soil substitute that is very porous, allowing for easy extraction of the plant from the medium to be planted in soil once the roots start to develop. This plant is even easier than that: cut a small piece off the end of a stem, put it in a cup of water and wait a few days. Sometimes it also helps to place a clear plastic bag upside down over the plant; this causes the environment around the plant to be very humid and warm, but air can very easily enter and exit through the bottom of the bag. After a few days, you'll start to see small roots form at the bottom of the stem. Put the stem in some soil, and there you go. A new plant! This is the way that one of my former students gave me my parrot plant about 4 years ago. I still have it, and while sometimes it just looks like a stick in the ground, it produces a new flush of flowers a couple of times a year. I have yet to see one of the fruit grenades produced, though.

The flowers of this plant are very well protected from predation, while at the same time attracting all different kinds of pollinators. Butterflies, bees and hummingbirds will be attracted to the flowers which produce a huge amount of nectar, as well as insects that have the ability to chew through the walls of the flower; since it's difficult for them to reach the bottom of the flower via the opening, they just bite through the outside and get their nectar reward by cheating. The protection of the flowers doesn't actually come from the flowers themselves, but from the stem of the plant while the flowers are developing. The plant produces large amounts of oxalic acid that are stored in crystals on specialized hairs on the stem right above the developing flowers. If a herbivore tries to come along and chew off one of the flowers, they will be instead rewarded with a mouthful of calcium oxalate crystals that will completely destroy their digestive system. Cats and dogs seem to have some sort of ability to sense this toxin produced by plants; I've never heard of a cat trying to eat through rhubarb leaves which have the same oxalic acid. Small children aren't so smart! It won't greatly harm a small child, but it will destroy your sense of taste for a good couple of days, as well as potentially making your mouth bleed quite a bit so parents of small children beware. The flowers of this plant can be interpreted as candy by small children so this plant shouldn't be within arms' reach.

The Purple (not a real) Shamrock

Species name: Oxalis triangularis

Common name: Purple shamrock, love plant

Location: UWO Greenhouse

The purple shamrock, not a real shamrock, is native to Brazil. One of the most exciting features about this plant aside from its purple foliage is that the leaves open and close as a result of sunlight and also reportedly a change in temperature, although it's difficult to say what is the cause for the movement in the leaves (since the temperature drops when the sun sets; it's a chicken-and-egg conundrum).

Unfortunately, the images of this plant show a rather unhealthy potted plant; there's a bit of an aphid problem in the greenhouses. This is also indicative of the problems that many homeowners have when trying to grow this plant indoors: if there's an aphid anywhere in or around your house, it seems like it will seek out and destroy any shamrocks within 5 square kilometres. It's actually quite impressive when you think about it. Even more impressively, in the wild these plants seem to be completely unaffected by aphid herbivory. It seems to only be a "problem of captivity," if you will.

One great characteristic of this plant is that it is 100% edible. They have a rather...pungent taste, that to me isn't very pleasant. But they would be great in a mixed greens salad, and the flowers are great for decorating salads, cakes and cupcakes. A multi-use tropical indoor plant! Make sure you don't eat too many leaves, though, as they do contain moderate amounts of oxalic acid, which can irritate the lining of the digestive tract. Unless you have kidneys operating at a reduced level of filtering function (due to kidney disease, diabetes, or other disease that affects the kidneys), poisoning from this plant leading to serious illness or death is nearly impossible. You would have to dedicate every minute of every day to eating it! The purple shamrock also does well outdoors in USDA growing zones 8a to 11, which roughly corresponds to an area from South Carolina all the way west to Texas and into Mexico, then south all the way to the Florida keys. If you live in these areas and choose to plant it outside, do take care since they tend to have a weedy growth habit and can strangle out other plants nearby.

Resveratrol: the miracle drug from Japanese knotweed?

Species name: Fallopia japonica

Common name: Japanese knotweed

Location: Ontario

Again, from the common name of this species you should be able to discern that it's a non-native plant (native to Japan, China and Korea), and it is one that is highly invasive in disturbed habitats outside of northeast Asia. In North America, any place that it has been introduced it very quickly dominates, and takes many years of dedicated effort to eradicate it completely. Because of the intense underground network of rhizomes, complete eradication of the plant without use of chemical herbicides is nearly impossible; the next option is to dig up the earth and transport it away from the site (the easiest way to remove Japanese knotweed away from areas to be developed). This involves removing the top two to three feet of soil, a feat that is not possible for most natural or residential areas.

Despite this plant's bad rap, I find it one of the most fascinating plants we have in North America (but I would never plant it myself!). The growth rate of Japanese knotweed is outstanding; it can grow three to four METERS in one growing season from about May until October or November. That kind of growth in a temperate species in a temperate location is unheard of with very few exceptions. Why this plant isn't being investigated as a possible source of biofuel is beyond me (there's no reason why it couldn't be grown in a highly controlled way in a greenhouse or contained outdoor area, and genetically modify it to prevent the formation of seeds). The stems can grow to be so large and so strong that it is often mistaken for bamboo in the cut form (I doubt anyone would mistake it for bamboo when it's still standing in the ground; the leaves are very different! They are completely unrelated species).

In Japan, this plant is a traditional food crop, although not widely served in tourist areas so most foreigners are not exposed to it. The name for the food made from this plant (young shoots and leaves) is called "sansai," but the plant has numerous names based on different regions in Japan. When I was there in 2006, I was convinced to try it (in Hiroshima they call it "itazura") and boy oh boy. "Sour" does not even begin to describe it. I was offered a piece, I tried it, I didn't die, but I certainly wouldn't willingly inflict that kind of cheek-puckering pain on myself again! I didn't notice any reaction to it, but apparently the stems contain high levels of oxalic acid, the same chemical found in rhubarb leaves (and the reason why you should never, ever eat rhubarb leaves).

Today, Japanese knotweed is the most common source of the drug "resveratrol," which has an incredibly large list of reported benefits: life extension (unproven in humans, but works in mice and fruit flies), cancer prevention (no clinical trials in humans, but causes cancer cell death in cancerous red blood cells and smooth muscle like the lining of your intestines), cardioprotective effects (anecdotal evidence; all of the scientific evidence that showed resveratrol had any effect on preventing cardiovascular disease have been retracted because they were published fraudulently), antidiabetic effects (clinical trials have shown it lowers blood sugar), neuroprotective effects (has been shown to reduce plaque formation in the brains of non-human animals; no human studies), anti-inflammatory effects (prevents the progression of rheumatoid arthritis in rabbits; no human studies), antiviral effects (prevents the progression and spread of the herpes simplex virus and synergistically enhances anti-HIV drugs), effects on testosterone levels (increases sperm production in rats and increases testosterone production in mice; no human studies but is currently being sold as a bodybuilding supplement), and finally antimicrobial effects (shown to be ineffective at preventing growth of any microbe, bacteria or fungus, that it has ever been tested against). Should you choose to take resveratrol for any reason, make sure you consult your doctor.

If current medical uses weren't enough, there are also traditional medicinal uses of this plant. Both the Japanese and the Chinese in their traditional medicines used extracts from the leaves of Japanese knotweed as a laxative and to regulate bowel motility.

The original Stinking Benjamin

My appologies! For the last 4 days I've been at two different conferences, and so have been a wee busy. More regular blog postings are starting again tomorrow!

Species name: Trillium erectum

Common name: red trillium, wake-robin, stinking Benjamin

Location: Nova Scotia

I took this photo while out with Tanya on a guided excursion of an area in Nova Scotia called Cape Split. Felt like a walk up a mountain carrying the pack mule with all of its stuff, to be rewarded with a beautiful view of the Bay of Fundy. Once we were done absorbing the view we started our (incredibly short) trek back down the "mountain", only to find out that the walk wasn't all that long at all! The red trillium is native to Eastern North America, especially the Maritime provinces.

Most of the 40-50 species in the Trillium genus are at risk of population decline across their entire range. Despite this, there is only one species that is protected by law in Ontario against picking since it is officially a threatened species and has a greatly reduced population size. The common white trillium, the provincial flower of Ontario, is only prohibited from being picked in Provincial and National Parks, and on land owned and controlled by a Conservation Authority. In the United States, it is illegal to pick trillium flowers in Michigan, Minnesota and New York. This isn't because it's a threatened species, it's because picking the flower prevents the bracts and leaves from making sugars to be stored for the next year's growth. This impedes the growth and reproductive abilities pretty severely of the trillium. The white trillium is also the state flower of Ohio, and the official government emblem of the Ontario Government. Like the Jack in the Pulpit plant, the trillium is characterized by having flower parts and leaves in multiples of three: three petals, three sepals, and three leaves. This makes the plant trifolate, and a monocot.

Red trillium flowers are definitely not suitable for picking for the dinner table. A dark red-purple colour in flowers often indicates that they will smell terrible, like rotting meat. This implies the flowers are pollinated by animals attracted to rotting meat, usually flies. Like another native Ontario wildflower, bloodroot, the seeds of the red trillium are dispersed via ants (called myrmecochory). The ants are attracted to the fruit of the flower because of the fleshy elaiosome that surrounds the seed. This elaiosome contains lots of lipids (fats) and proteins, which the ants use as a rich source of nutrition. Once the ants have consumed the elaiosome, they transport the seeds into their disposal chambers underground where they can germinate the next spring and grow into a new trillium plant. Despite this complex association between trilliums and ants, these plants rarely actually reproduce sexually via their seeds. Like many of the spring wildflowers that I've blogged about so far, trilliums have rhizomes that store nutrients for the plants to use to grow the next spring.

To my knowledge, there is no medicinal or nutritive benefits (either perceived or actual) of consuming specifically the red trillium (although, there are stories about other species of trillium having medicinal value in preventing and treating bloody diarrhea). It contains calcium oxalate crystals in a special form called a raphide, which would make the plant toxic to consume by humans. The crystals can perforate the intestines and cause ulcers. Plus, I don't imagine they taste very good!

Peekaboo! I see you!

Species name: Arisaema triphyllum

Common name: Jack-in-the-pulpit, bog onion, brown dragon, Indian turnip

Location: Ontario

Jack in the pulpit flowers are great examples of exceptions in the plant world, which is one of the reasons why I like them so much. It is another example of a native eastern North American plant. We have these growing in our back yard, which confused me at first (like they do many people) since I mistook them for poison ivy and ripped out all of the leaves one year (with gloves on!). The leaves of poison ivy and jack in the pulpit are both what are called "trifolate", which means there are three leaflets coming out of each "leaf point" on the stem. Once this plant starts to flower, however, is very obvious that it's not poison ivy! Silly me. Like the last plant in this blog, hyacinth, jack in the pulpit also grows from a corm.

One of the amazing things about this plant is just how variable it can be depending on environmental conditions, and what type of genetic variation it contains. The flowers themselves can range in size from 12-36 cm tall, and can be anywhere from pure green (like in the photo) to green with dark brown (almost purple) stripes. The "jack" on the inside can also be bright green or dark purple-brown, or anywhere in between. The plants themselves can be from 30-65 cm tall, depending on nutrient levels of the soil.

In general, a good rule to use to figure out if a plant is a monocot (in other words, most closely related to grasses) or a dicot (in other words, most closely related to an oak tree) is by the shape of their leaves and the number of flower parts. In general, monocots have long and thin leaves with parallel veins and flowers with flower parts (petals, sepals, stamens and stigmas) in multiples of three. Dicots have broad leaves with net-like veins and flower parts in multiples of either fours or fives. Jack in the pulpit, then, seems to be a dicot. Its leaves are broad and have net-like veins, and unless you have a very powerful hand lens it's impossible to tell if flower parts are in multiples of 3s or 4-5s. Unfortunately...that would be incorrect. This is a monocot! One unusual group of monocots is the family Araceae, which includes the peace lily (a common ornamental plant, often used as an aquatic plant in wedding centrepieces). They have broad leaves with (mostly) parallel veins (but some are cross-wise) and a specific type of flower called the spathe and spadix. Here, "Jack" would be the spadix and his pulpit would be the spathe. If you zoom in on the spadix, you would see that it's actually a multi-flowered flower head (called an inflorescence), with each little facet on the spadix being one flower. Neat!

But, of course, the uniqueness of this plant doesn't stop there. This is also a great plant to demonstrate all of the unique evolutionary mechanisms plants have derived to avoid self-pollination or inbreeding. There are separate male and female flowers on the spadix, but never both at the same time. Usually the plant starts with predominantly male flowers (if there are female flowers, they are not mature yet) that are producing pollen. Flies are attracted to the spadix because they are much warmer than the ambient air (thanks to the spathe), and they have a rather...unpleasant smell. The fly is covered in pollen, then travels to another flower. If the plant plays its cards right, the next flower will be predominantly female flowers (if there are male flowers, they are no longer mature) which are receptive to receiving pollen. The fly deposits the pollen onto the stigmas, and pollination occurs. Even neater!

This plant is absolutely toxic if consumed raw (it contains calcium oxalate crystals which can perforate the digestive tract), but is actually often cooked as a root crop like you would cook potatoes (but boiled a bit longer because they're much tougher) and eaten. I have never tried it so I can't vouch for what it would taste like, but I can't imagine it would be too flavourful. Native North American people often used this plant as a medicine to treat sore eyes, rheumatism, bronchitis, snake bites, and to induce sterility. Whether or not it's an effective treatment against any of these I have no idea. I wouldn't recommend experimenting.

Hyacinth: a plant of the gods

Species name: Hyacinthus orientalis

Common name: Hyacinth

Location: Ontario

Hyacinths are native to Turkey, Israel, Iran and Turkmenistan (the epithet of the species name, "orientalis," is a bit misleading in this case). It has been a popular plant for gardening for a very long time, and has been in North America for 200-300 years. As with most "bulb" plants (I'll explain the quotation marks further down), the Dutch were famous for breeding hyacinths, and had up to 2,000 cultivars by the 18th century.

Contrary to popular belief, hyacinths actually aren't bulbs. They are underground storage organs very similar to bulbs, called corms, but where the plant stores their starch is very different. If you picture an onion, that is a bulb. The leaves have been modified to be very fleshy and to store starch. In a corm, like a hyacinth or the edible plant taro, it's instead a swollen underground stem that has been modified to store starch (which is why when you cut a hyacinth "bulb" in half, it doesn't have layers like an onion). I have heard of an old wives tale where if you cut a storage organ in half and it has layers you can eat it, and if it doesn't you can't. This is 100% false, and "rules" such as these should never be followed when deciding what wild or cultivated plants can or cannot be eaten. Tulips come from bulbs, and you would be very disappointed if you ever tried eating a tulip bulb. While taro is edible (and quite delicious, actually), hyacinth bulbs most definitely are not. They are toxic and contain high levels of oxalic acid, an acid that will cause blistering for sensitive skin. Wearing gloves when gardening is always a safe precaution, but especially if you are planting large amounts of these corms and you have sensitive skin.

The hyacinth flower is heavily rooted in Greek mythology. The story goes that Apollo and Zephyr were jealous of the youthful beauty of Hyakinthos, and competed for his attention. Zephyr was angered by the fact that Hyakinthos seemed to like Apollo more, and blew Apollo's discuss stone off-course and it hit Hyacinth and killed him. Instead of allowing Hades to claim Hyakinthos' body, Apollo poured his blood on the Earth and turned it into a flower. An interesting story of how plants are tightly intertwined with mythology (from all countries; the Persian New Year also uses hyacinths in their table settings). The hyacinth is also associated with rebirth in many cultures, and so is often planted at grave sites.